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Analysis of the Effects of Eliminating the National Speed Limit on NOx Emissions |
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Wednesday, 18 April 2007 |
This report was prepared by E. H. Pechan and Associates for the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Policy, Planning,
and Evaluation. For further information, please contact Bob Noland
at 202-260-2418.
Analysis of the Effects of Eliminating the National
Speed Limit on NOx Emissions
Introduction
Highway vehicles contribute approximately one third of the oxides of
nitrogen (NOx) emissions released to the atmosphere in the United States
annually (EPA, 1994). Since highway vehicles contribute such a large
percentage of NOx emissions, proposed modifications in the National
Highway System bill are examined in this analysis to determine their
effect on this important source category. Specifically, the U.S. Senate
has recently proposed to abolish the national maximum speed limit. Such
a policy modification may have a significant impact on the magnitude of
NOx emissions from motor vehicles. Motor vehicle NOx emissions result
from combustion processes and tend to increase with increasing speeds
above 48 miles per hour (mph) (Pechan, 1992). This analysis examines
the potential consequences of the proposed Senate changes to the
National Highway System bill on highway vehicle NOx emission levels. The
Senate recently voted to repeal the national maximum speed limit on
federally financed highways. The national maximum speed limit rule
currently restricts vehicle speed limits to 65 mph on rural freeways,
and 55 mph for all other corridors. The Senate proposal to repeal the
national speed limit passed on June 19, 1995 with the stipulation that
federal speed limits still apply to commercial vehicles such as trucks
and buses. If the bill passes through the House of Representatives,
States would have the authority to determine the maximum allowable speed
limits for automobiles within their State boundaries. Trucks and buses
would still be subject to the 55 mph urban and 65 mph rural limits. The
national maximum speed limit was established in 1974; it restricted
speed limits to 55 mph. The impetus for this regulation was to conserve
fuel during the 1973 oil embargo and subsequent energy crisis. Prior to
the national limit, States determined speed limits for all corridors
within their jurisdictions. Table 1 presents the speed limits
maintained by States in January 1973, prior to implementation of the
national maximum speed limit. Also presented in Table 1 are current
speed limits for automobiles and trucks, by State. In 1987, the maximum
speed limit on rural freeways was increased to 65 mph. Rural freeways
are defined as freeways located in designated "rural" areas,
with a population less than 50,000. Freeways are "controlled
access facilities" which means that access is by ramp only and
freeways are divided highways which usually consist of four lanes. The
likely effect of the recent Senate proposal abolishing the national
speed limit will be increases in rural freeway speed limits for
automobiles. Since most States adhered to the 55 mph speed limit in
urban areas before the national maximum speed limit was established,
changes in speed limits around metropolitan areas are expected to be
minimal (FHWA, 1995). As shown in Table 1, speed limits on rural
freeways before the national maximum limit of 65 mph did not exceed 75
mph, with the exception of Montana and Nevada -- which did not establish
maximum limits. Most maximum speed limits for rural corridors ranged
between 65 and 75 mph with the majority of States setting rural speed
limits of 70 mph.
This analysis assumes that States are most likely to raise the maximum
speed limits on their rural freeways to limits established prior to the
national maximum speed limit and retain the 55 mph limit in urban areas.
Current Effects of Speeds Limits
Before estimating the likely effects that abolishing the national speed
limit will have on interstate speeds, it is helpful to examine the
effectiveness of the 55 mph speed limit. Based on data from the Federal
Highway Administration (FHWA) published in the 1993 Highway Statistics
report that analyzes trends in speeds on highways signed for 55 mph, a
majority of vehicles exceed this posted limit (FHWA, 1994).
In 1993, 70 percent of drivers exceeded 55 mph on urban interstate
highways and 78 percent exceeded the speed limit on rural interstate
highways. only highways with a posted 55 mph speed limit are included
in this average. The average speed recorded on the urban interstate
highways was 59 mph and approximately 61 mph on rural interstate
highways. In addition, 18 percent of drivers on urban interstates and
24 percent of drivers on rural interstates were already exceeding 65 mph
on 55 mph roads. Prior to the setting of the national speed limit, FHWA
reports that the average speed of free-moving traffic on level,
straight, uncongested sections of the rural interstate system reached a
peak of approximately 65 mph in 1973. This compares to a current
average speed on rural interstates posted with 55 mph limits of 61 mph.
It is important to consider that the average speed in 1973 was
calculated at ideal conditions whereas the current average speed
includes all vehicle travel on the rural interstate system, not just the
straight, uncongested portions analyzed for the 1973 data.
Analysis Methods
This analysis was performed within the constraints of the MOBILE5a
model. Therefore, the maximum speed that could be examined was 65 mph.
Two cases were compared with the 1994 highway vehicle NOx emission
inventory prepared for EPA's Emission Trends report--a maximum effects
case and a likely effects case.
In the base case analysis, the speeds modeled for each road type and
vehicle type were determined using data from FHWA's 1987 through 1990
HPMS impact analyses. Speeds varied less than 1 mph over this time
period for any given vehicle type/road type combination. Therefore, the
1990 data were used and aggregated to determine average speeds for three
vehicle classifications (light duty vehicles, light duty trucks, and
heavy duty vehicles).
Table 2 presents the national distribution of VMT by vehicle class and
road type. Table 3 summarizes the speeds modeled in the four road
classes of interest (rural interstates, rural principal arterials, urban
interstates, and urban other freeways and expressways) in this analysis.
Emissions were estimated at the county, monthly, road type level. As
seen in Table 2, these four road types account for 39 percent of the
total VMT. To get an estimate of the maximum effects of abolishing the
national speed limit, speeds for all vehicle types on all of the road
types listed in Table 3 were modeled at a speed of 65 mph. This assumes
that urban speed limits would be increased as well as the rural speeds
and that heavy duty vehicles would also be able to increase to 65 mph.
Due to factors such as congestion from heavy peak hour volumes, it is
unlikely that urban speeds would ever reach an average of 65 mph even if
the speed limits on these roads were increased. However, modeling this
case gives an estimate of the upper bounds of possible emission
increases. Other than the change in speeds for these four road types,
all other modeling was done identically to the base case. A more
realistic case was also examined. In this case, the base case speeds
were modeled for the heavy duty vehicles.
This corresponds with the version of the bill that has passed the
Senate, in which these vehicle classes would be subject to the current
limits of 55 mph or 65 mph. In addition, it was assumed that urban
speeds for all vehicle types would remain unchanged from the base case,
reflecting the reality of the lower average speeds observed on urban
interstates. Finally, the nine States shown in Table 1 to have maximum
limits of 65 or lower prior to the setting of the national speed limit
were modeled at the same speeds used in the base case. As seen in Table
2, light-duty VMT on rural roads accounts for only 18 percent of the
total 1994 VMT. With nine States modeled at base case speeds, the
percentage of VMT modeled in this case at 65 mph would be even less than
18 percent. Again, all inputs other than speed used in the base case
were modeled in this case as well.
Results
Tables 4, 5, and 6 present the NOx emissions calculated for the base
case, the maximum effects case, and the likely effects case,
respectively. These results are presented at the State level, and with
emissions from heavy duty vehicles separated from emissions from light
duty vehicles. In this manner, results from the three cases can easily
be combined in other configurations if changes occur in the present
status of disallowing heavy duty vehicles from the higher speeds, or if
urban speeds in certain States are likely to approach the higher rural
speeds. Table 7 compares the results from the likely case with the base
case results.
As seen in this table, NOx emissions are projected to increase by 5.2
percent with the elimination of the national speed limit.
States such as Montana, North Dakota, and South Dakota that have high
rural interstate VMT relative to urban VMT show the greatest increases
in NOx. In contrast, States like New Jersey, California, and Illinois
that have high urban VMT relative to rural VMT show relatively small
emission increases resulting from the change in speeds.
Related Issues
This analysis was completed using MOBILE5a.
The MOBILE model is designed to model vehicle speeds up to 65 mph.
Therefore, it was not possible to use to the MOBILE model to estimate
emissions resulting from vehicle speeds in the 70 to 75 mph range.
Forty-two States posted speed limits above 70 mph prior to the maximum
national speed limit set in 1974. It is, therefore, realistic that the
majority of States will post speed limits in this range again. A rough
estimate using the State of Texas as a sample indicates an increase in
NOx emissions of an additional 11 percent for light duty vehicles on
rural corridors if emissions are modelled using an emission factor
reflecting emission rates applicable to vehicles travelling at 70 mph.
This example was calculated assuming a linear increase in the emission
factor with speed after 48 mph. This example illustrates that the
effects of repealing the maximum national speed limit on NOx emissions
may be more dramatic than the results in this analysis -- using MOBILE5a
-- imply. Although this analysis examines the potential increase in
highway vehicle NOx emissions as a result of increased automobile speeds
on rural highways, carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are likely to increase
as well.
Both CO and NOx emissions result from combustion processes. At lower
speeds, around 15 mph, motor vehicle emissions of CO and NOx decrease
with increases in vehicle speed as a result of more efficient
combustion. However, after 48 mph, increases in vehicular speeds are
accompanied by increases in emissions of both CO and NOx (Pechan, 1992).
Thus, increases in highway vehicle CO emissions are also likely as a
result of the proposed changes to the National Highway System bill.
Using the same reasoning, particulate matter (PM) emissions may also
increase.
Conclusions
The results of this analysis indicate a 5 percent increase in motor
vehicle NOx emissions annually on a national level. Current controls on
NOx emissions are focused in ozone nonattainment areas where NOx and HC
emissions react with sunlight to form tropospheric ozone. Although NOx
emissions will increase on a national level as a result of repealing the
maximum national speed limit on rural corridors, the net effect on ozone
levels will likely be much less significant. Ozone nonattainment areas
are predominantly urban areas where automobile speed limit changes are
not as likely to occur. Despite the effect of transport, the increases
in NOx shown in this analysis on a national level may not necessarily
contribute to parallel increases in ozone formation. In order to more
accurately assess the implications on air quality of the proposed Senate
rule, a more thorough analysis should be conducted which analyzes
increases in highway vehicle CO and PM emissions as well. Moreover,
emission estimates should be determined using an appropriate correction
factor to estimate emissions generated at 70 mph speeds. The effect of
increased motor vehicle NOx emissions resulting from light duty vehicle
speed increases on rural corridors on ozone nonattainment areas also
deserves more in depth attention.
References
EPA, 1994; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "National Air
Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900-1993" OAQPS, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina, October, 1994.
FHWA, 1994; Federal Highway Association, "Highway Statistics
1993" Washington, DC, 1994.
FHWA, 1995; Federal Highway Association. Personal Communication with
Ms. Julie Cirillo, June, 1995.
Pechan, 1992; E.H. Pechan & Associates, "Sensitivity Analysis
of MOBILE4.1 Emission Factors" Prepared for EPA Ozone/Carbon
Monoxide Programs Branch Springfield, Virginia, July 1992.
Table 1
Maximum State Speed Limits
State State Speed Limit Current Comments
Prior to 1974 Speed Limits
(mph) (mph)
Automobiles Trucks
Alabama 70 65 65
Alaska 70 65 65
Arizona 75 65 65
Arkansas 75 65 65
California 70 65 55
Colorado 70 65 65 Trucks lower in mountains
Connecticut 60 55 55
Delaware 60 55 55
DC 60 55 55
Florida 70 65 65
Georgia 70 65 65
Hawaii 70 55 55
Idaho 70 65 65
Illinois 70 65 55
Indiana 70 65 60
Iowa 75 65 65
Kansas 75 65 65
Kentucky 70 65 65
Louisiana 70 65 65
Maine 70 65 65
Maryland 70 55 55 65 mph on July 1, 1995
Massachusetts 65 65 65 65 mph on Mass. Tnpk
only. All other
locations 55 mph
Michigan 70 65 55
Minnesota 65 65 65
Mississippi 70 65 65
Missouri 70 65 60
Montana unlimited 65 65
Nebraska 75 65 65
Nevada unlimited 65 65
New Hampshire 70 65 65
New Jersey 70 55 55
New Mexico 70 65 65
New York 55 55 55 65 mph on August 1, 1995
- all vehicles
North Carolina 70 65 65
North Dakota 75 65 65
Ohio 70 65 55
Oklahoma 70 65 65
Oregon 75 65 55
Pennsylvania 65 55 55 65 mph July 13, 1995
Rhode Island 60 55 55
South Carolina 70 65 65
South Dakota 75 65 65
Tennessee 75 65 65
Texas 70 65 60 Trucks limited to 60 mph
daytime and 55 mph
nighttime
Utah 70 65 65
Vermont 65 65 65
Virginia 70 65 65
Washington 70 65 60
West Virginia 70 65 65
Wisconsin 70 65 65
Wyoming 75 65 65
Source: Department of Transportation/Federal Highway Association
Table 2
1994 Vehicle Miles Travelled (VMT)
by Road Type and Vehicle Class
Road Total VMT Percent Percent Percent of
Type of Total of Total Total VMT
VMT VMT
(Heavy (Light
Duty) Duty)
RURAL
Interstate 214,757 1.0 8.1 9.1
Other Principal Arterial 209,017 1.0 7.9 8.9
Minor Arterial 153,503 0.7 5.8 6.5
Major Collector 183,281 0.9 6.9 7.8
Minor Collector 49,932 0.2 1.9 2.1
Local 105,430 0.5 4.0 4.5
Total Rural 915,919 4.5 34.6 39.0
URBAN
Interstate 322,023 0.6 13.1 13.7
Other Freeways 144,284 0.3 5.9 6.1
Expressways
Other Principal Arterial 360,146 0.7 14.6 15.3
Minor Arterial 279,419 0.5 11.4 11.9
Collector 122,536 0.2 5.0 5.2
Local 202,918 0.4 8.3 8.6
Total Urban 1,431,325 2.8 58.2 61.0
TOTAL 2,347,244 7.2 92.8 100.0
Table 3
Average Speeds by Road Type and Vehicle Type Modeled
for the Base Case
Rural Urban Other
--------------------- -----------------------
Vehicle Type Interstate Principal Interstate Freeways
Arterial Expressways
Light Duty 60 mph 45 mph 45 mph 45 mph
Vehicles
Light Duty Trucks 55 mph 45 mph 45 mph 45 mph
Heavy Duty 40 mph 35 mph 35 mph 35 mph
Vehicles
Table 4
1994 Highway Vehicle
NOx Emissions
with Current Speed
Limits (Base Case)
1994 Base Case NOx Emissions (tons)
Light-Duty Heavy-Duty All
State Vehicles Vehicles Vehicles
Alabama 108,578 53,320 161,898
Alaska 10,843 4,500 15,343
Arizona 78,660 35,363 114,023
Arkansas 57,374 30,694 88,067
California 500,401 213,317 713,718
Colorado 75,598 32,384 107,982
Connecticut 64,465 23,245 87,710
Delaware 15,142 6,902 22,044
District of Columbia 7,737 2,286 10,023
Florida 252,135 108,530 360,665
Georgia 179,504 81,615 261,119
Hawaii 16,470 6,983 23,453
Idaho 28,555 14,902 43,457
Illinois 213,507 83,066 296,573
Indiana 147,618 68,419 216,037
Iowa 63,270 31,458 94,727
Kansas 58,571 27,933 86,504
Kentucky 93,233 45,802 139,035
Louisiana 76,049 38,144 114,193
Maine 30,784 16,103 46,887
Maryland 98,724 38,949 137,673
Massachusetts 108,300 36,795 145,095
Michigan 206,614 83,471 290,085
Minnesota 105,734 45,987 151,721
Mississippi 62,248 35,023 97,270
Missouri 131,072 59,523 190,594
Montana 22,571 11,854 34,425
Nebraska 36,876 18,277 55,152
Nevada 25,996 11,843 37,839
New Hampshire 26,392 12,325 38,717
New Jersey 129,949 47,339 177,288
New Mexico 44,555 22,952 67,507
New York 255,046 98,126 353,172
North Carolina 162,538 78,311 240,850
North Dakota 16,118 8,190 24,308
Ohio 233,350 97,841 331,190
Oklahoma 83,252 39,856 123,108
Oregon 68,076 32,079 100,156
Pennsylvania 211,943 92,727 304,670
Rhode Island 16,431 5,371 21,802
South Carolina 83,695 43,879 127,574
South Dakota 19,791 10,472 30,263
Tennessee 123,994 56,331 180,325
Texas 379,434 160,823 540,257
Utah 41,066 16,572 57,637
Vermont 15,528 7,698 23,227
Virginia 151,518 70,200 221,718
Washington 111,867 43,970 155,838
West Virginia 40,811 21,793 62,603
Wisconsin 120,804 55,905 176,709
Wyoming 17,972 9,503 27,475
Total 5,230,757 2,298,948 7,529,705
Table 5
1994 Highway Vehicle
NOx Emissions
with Maximum Effects
of New Speed Limit
(Max Case)
1994 Max Case NOx Emissions (tons)
Light-Duty Heavy-Duty All
State Vehicles Vehicles Vehicles
Alabama 127,531 68,944 196,476
Alaska 12,626 5,977 18,603
Arizona 91,844 46,780 138,623
Arkansas 70,699 42,242 112,941
California 659,405 296,651 956,056
Colorado 93,065 45,069 138,134
Connecticut 84,009 31,378 115,387
Delaware 18,844 9,096 27,939
District of Columbia 9,211 2,709 11,920
Florida 299,930 144,682 444,612
Georgia 217,807 107,692 325,499
Hawaii 20,091 8,159 28,250
Idaho 33,742 19,813 53,555
Illinois 253,580 107,783 361,363
Indiana 174,579 89,146 263,725
Iowa 76,480 43,497 119,978
Kansas 71,893 37,959 109,851
Kentucky 113,245 61,522 174,767
Louisiana 89,839 49,970 139,809
Maine 35,515 20,660 56,175
Maryland 126,817 53,138 179,955
Massachusetts 137,296 48,748 186,044
Michigan 252,893 109,273 362,166
Minnesota 132,464 62,094 194,558
Mississippi 72,498 45,020 117,518
Missouri 167,001 83,125 250,126
Montana 27,322 17,026 44,348
Nebraska 43,766 24,731 68,497
Nevada 30,988 16,321 47,309
New Hampshire 32,351 16,897 49,248
New Jersey 159,460 61,426 220,886
New Mexico 52,269 31,958 84,227
New York 317,253 126,359 443,612
North Carolina 192,285 100,044 292,330
North Dakota 19,531 11,508 31,039
Ohio 282,603 126,366 408,969
Oklahoma 100,295 52,658 152,953
Oregon 84,930 45,058 129,988
Pennsylvania 254,841 121,159 376,000
Rhode Island 20,489 6,998 27,487
South Carolina 98,405 58,821 157,226
South Dakota 23,804 14,612 38,416
Tennessee 148,259 75,407 223,667
Texas 476,931 216,639 693,570
Utah 50,521 23,425 73,946
Vermont 18,131 10,162 28,293
Virginia 182,925 93,046 275,971
Washington 142,421 60,383 202,804
West Virginia 48,686 29,510 78,196
Wisconsin 144,875 74,397 219,271
Wyoming 21,408 13,445 34,853
Total 6,417,650 3,069,488 9,487,138
Modeled with 65 mph speeds on rural interstates and principal arterial
roads and on urban interstate and other freeways and expressways
for all vehicle types.
Table 6
1994 Highway Vehicle
NOx Emissions
with Likely Effects
of New Speed Limit
(Likely Case)
1994 Likely Case NOx Emissions (tons)
Light-Duty Heavy-Duty All
State Vehicles Vehicles Vehicles
Alabama 119,344 53,320 172,664
Alaska 11,747 4,500 16,247
Arizona 84,239 35,363 119,602
Arkansas 66,001 30,694 96,694
California 527,430 213,317 740,748
Colorado 82,742 32,384 115,125
Connecticut 64,465 23,245 87,710
Delaware 15,142 6,902 22,044
District of Columbia 7,737 2,286 10,023
Florida 274,081 108,530 382,611
Georgia 193,385 81,615 275,000
Hawaii 16,561 6,983 23,544
Idaho 32,405 14,902 47,307
Illinois 226,292 83,066 309,359
Indiana 161,397 68,419 229,816
Iowa 73,464 31,458 104,922
Kansas 66,126 27,933 94,059
Kentucky 104,264 45,802 150,065
Louisiana 83,044 38,144 121,188
Maine 34,433 16,103 50,536
Maryland 105,618 38,949 144,567
Massachusetts 108,300 36,795 145,095
Michigan 222,395 83,471 305,866
Minnesota 105,734 45,987 151,721
Mississippi 69,836 35,023 104,859
Missouri 146,705 59,523 206,227
Montana 26,957 11,854 38,811
Nebraska 42,201 18,277 60,478
Nevada 28,532 11,843 40,375
New Hampshire 29,945 12,325 42,270
New Jersey 136,708 47,339 184,047
New Mexico 50,320 22,952 73,271
New York 255,046 98,126 353,172
North Carolina 177,367 78,311 255,678
North Dakota 19,168 8,190 27,358
Ohio 248,014 97,841 345,855
Oklahoma 91,459 39,856 131,315
Oregon 77,448 32,079 109,528
Pennsylvania 211,943 92,727 304,670
Rhode Island 16,431 5,371 21,802
South Carolina 93,254 43,879 137,132
South Dakota 23,296 10,472 33,768
Tennessee 135,117 56,331 191,448
Texas 407,912 160,823 568,734
Utah 44,536 16,572 61,108
Vermont 15,528 7,698 23,227
Virginia 165,109 70,200 235,309
Washington 120,682 43,970 164,653
West Virginia 46,365 21,793 68,158
Wisconsin 136,212 55,905 192,118
Wyoming 20,931 9,503 30,434
Total 5,623,370 2,298,948 7,922,318
Modeled with 65 mph speeds on rural interstates and principal arterial
roads for light duty vehicles and trucks only and only in states with
former limits above 65.
Table 7
Comparison of Base
Case and Likely Case
1994 Highway Vehicle
NOx Emissions
1994 Total NOx Emissions Increase in Percentage
1994
from All Vehicle Types NOx Increase
(tons) Emissions
State Base Case Likely Case (tons) in Emissions
Alabama 161,898 172,664 10,766 6.65
Alaska 15,343 16,247 904 5.89
Arizona 114,023 119,602 5,579 4.89
Arkansas 88,067 96,694 8,627 9.80
California 713,718 740,748 27,030 3.79
Colorado 107,982 115,125 7,143 6.62
Connecticut 87,710 87,710 0 0.00
Delaware 22,044 22,044 0 0.00
District of Columbia 10,023 10,023 0 0.00
Florida 360,665 382,611 21,946 6.08
Georgia 261,119 275,000 13,881 5.32
Hawaii 23,453 23,544 91 0.39
Idaho 43,457 47,307 3,850 8.86
Illinois 296,573 309,359 12,786 4.31
Indiana 216,037 229,816 13,779 6.38
Iowa 94,727 104,922 10,195 10.76
Kansas 86,504 94,059 7,555 8.73
Kentucky 139,035 150,065 11,030 7.93
Louisiana 114,193 121,188 6,996 6.13
Maine 46,887 50,536 3,649 7.78
Maryland 137,673 144,567 6,895 5.01
Massachusetts 145,095 145,095 0 0.00
Michigan 290,085 305,866 15,781 5.44
Minnesota 151,721 151,721 0 0.00
Mississippi 97,270 104,859 7,588 7.80
Missouri 190,594 206,227 15,633 8.20
Montana 34,425 38,811 4,386 12.74
Nebraska 55,152 60,478 5,325 9.66
Nevada 37,839 40,375 2,536 6.70
New Hampshire 38,717 42,270 3,553 9.18
New Jersey 177,288 184,047 6,758 3.81
New Mexico 67,507 73,271 5,764 8.54
New York 353,172 353,172 0 0.00
North Carolina 240,850 255,678 14,828 6.16
North Dakota 24,308 27,358 3,050 12.55
Ohio 331,190 345,855 14,664 4.43
Oklahoma 123,108 131,315 8,207 6.67
Oregon 100,156 109,528 9,372 9.36
Pennsylvania 304,670 304,670 0 0.00
Rhode Island 21,802 21,802 0 0.00
South Carolina 127,574 137,132 9,559 7.49
South Dakota 30,263 33,768 3,505 11.58
Tennessee 180,325 191,448 11,123 6.17
Texas 540,257 568,734 28,477 5.27
Utah 57,637 61,108 3,471 6.02
Vermont 23,227 23,227 0 0.00
Virginia 221,718 235,309 13,591 6.13
Washington 155,838 164,653 8,815 5.66
West Virginia 62,603 68,158 5,554 8.87
Wisconsin 176,709 192,118 15,409 8.72
Wyoming 27,475 30,434 2,959 10.77
Total 7,529,705 7,922,318 392,613 5.21
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